Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination Risk in the Feed Chain Through GHP and HACCP
Keywords:
: animal health, critical control points, food safety, post-harvest contamination, toxigenic fungi.Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination remains one of the most persistent and relevant safety challenges within the feed chain, with significant implications for animal health, the quality of animal-derived products, and, indirectly, public health. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium, which can contaminate plant raw materials and compound feeds at various stages of the production process, particularly during the post-harvest phase. This paper analyses strategies for preventing mycotoxin contamination in the feed chain, focusing on the application of Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) and the HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) system. Good practice guidelines provide an operational framework for hygiene, handling, storage, and transport, contributing to limiting the factors favoring the development of toxigenic fungi. In parallel, the HACCP system introduces a structured and preventive approach based on hazard identification and monitoring of critical control points (CCPs), tailored to the specific context of each facility or operation. The paper also explores the synergy between the two approaches - GHP and HACCP - and their efficiency in managing the risks associated with mycotoxin contamination, especially in the current context marked by climate change and strict food safety standards. Through an integrated approach, safe feed, animal health, and the confidence of the final consumer can be ensured.
References
Latham R. L., Boyle J. T., Barbano A., Loveman W. G., Brown N. A., Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals. Essays Biochem. 2023;67(5):797-809. doi: 10.1042/EBC20220221.
Eskola M., Kos G., Elliott C. T., Hajšlová J., Mayar S., Krska R., Worldwide contamination of food-crops with mycotoxins: Validity of the widely cited “FAO estimate” of 25. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2020;60(16):2773-2789. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1658570.
Fumagalli F., Ottoboni M., Pinotti L., Cheli F., Integrated mycotoxin management system in the feed supply chain: Innovative approaches. Toxins (Basel). 2021;13(8):572. doi: 10.3390/toxins13080572.
Viegas S., Assunção R., Twarużek M., Kosicki R., Grajewski J., Viegas C., Mycotoxins feed contamination in a dairy farm - Potential implications for milk contamination and workers’ exposure in a One Health approach. J Sci Food Agric. 2020;100(3):1118-1123. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.10120.
Poroșnicu I., Ailincăi L. I., Ariton M. A., Neculai-Văleanu A. S., Borș S.-I., Vintilă V., Mareș M., The importance of aflatoxin M1 in dairy products - A mini-review. Scientific Papers: Series Veterinary Medicine. 2024;67(1):33-38. doi: 10.61900/SPJVS.2024.01.12.
Gallo A., Minuti A., Bani P., Bertuzzi T., Cappelli F.P., Doupovec B., Faas J., Schatzmayr D., Trevisi E., A mycotoxin-deactivating feed additive counteracts the adverse effects of regular levels of Fusarium mycotoxins in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 2020;103:11314-11331. doi: 10.3168/jds.2020-18197.
Pandey A. K., Samota M. K., Kumar A., Silva A. S., Dubey N.K., Fungal mycotoxins in food commodities: Present status and future concerns. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2023;7:1162595. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1162595.
Hamad G. M., Mehany T., Simal-Gandara J., Abou-Alella S., Esua O. J., Abdel-Wahhab M. A., Hafez E. E., A review of recent innovative strategies for controlling mycotoxins in foods. Food Chem. 2022;373:131423. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131423.
Yu J., Pedroso I. R., Mycotoxins in cereal-based products and their impacts on the health of humans, livestock animals and pets. Toxins (Basel). 2023;15(8):480. doi: 10.3390/toxins15080480.
Casu A., Camardo Leggieri M., Toscano P., Battilani P., Changing climate, shifting mycotoxins: A comprehensive review of climate change impact on mycotoxin contamination. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2024;23(2):e13323. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.13323.
Martin-Cardoso H., San Segundo B., Impact of nutrient stress on plant disease resistance. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;26(4):1780. doi: 10.3390/ijms26041780.
Martín I., Gálvez L., Guasch L., Palmero D., Fungal pathogens and seed storage in the dry state. Plants (Basel). 2022;11(22):3167. doi: 10.3390/plants11223167.
Yewle N. R., Stroshine R. L., Ambrose R. P. K., Baributsa D., Hermetic bags: A short-term solution to preserve high-moisture maize during grain drying. Foods. 2024;13(5):760. doi: 10.3390/foods13050760.
Carpena M., Perez-Vazquez A., Barciela P., Noras K., Trafiałek J., Trząskowska M., Prieto M. A., Insights into toxicity: Molecular mechanisms of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in spices. Biology and Life Sciences Forum. 2024;35(1):3. doi: 10.3390/blsf2024035003.
Poroșnicu I., Neculai-Văleanu A. S., Ariton A. M., Bădilaș N. I., Mădescu B. M., Crivei I., Importance of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium genera and contamination control strategies. Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies. 2022;55(1):160-170.
Oluwakayode A., Sulyok M., Berthiller F., Verheecke-Vaessen C., Krska R., Medina A., Real-time CO₂ production monitoring in stored oats as an indicator of type A trichothecenes and ochratoxin A contamination under simulated environmental conditions. Toxins. 2025;17(3):132. doi: 10.3390/toxins17030132.
Franchino C., Vita V., Iammarino M., De Pace R., Monitoring of animal feed contamination by mycotoxins: Results of five years of official control by an accredited Italian laboratory. Microorganisms. 2024;12(1):173. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12010173.
Latham R. L., Boyle J. T., Barbano A., Loveman W. G., Brown N. A., Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals. Essays Biochem. 2023;67(5):797–809. doi: 10.1042/EBC20220221.
Gruber-Dorninger C., Müller A., Rosen R., Multi-mycotoxin contamination of aquaculture feed: A global survey. Toxins. 2025;17(3):116. doi: 10.3390/toxins17030116.
Poroșnicu I., Ailincăi L. I., Neculai-Văleanu A. S., Ariton A. M., Mareș M., Effects of mycotoxins on the health status of dairy cattle. Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies. 2024;57(2):69-78.
Deligeorgakis C., Magro C., Skendi A., Gebrehiwot H.H., Valdramidis V., Papageorgiou M., Fungal and toxin contaminants in cereal grains and flours: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Foods. 2023;12(23):4328. doi: 10.3390/foods12234328.
Mortimore S., Wallace C., Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) as a part of an overall quality assurance system in international food trade. Food Control. 2000;11(5):345-351. doi: 10.1016/S0956-7135(99)00094-8.
Jackowska-Tracz A., Tracz M., Anusz K., Integrated approach across prerequisite programmes and procedures based on HACCP principles. Medycyna
Weterynaryjna. 2018;74(4):223-227. doi: 10.21521/mw.6089.
Xu R., Kiarie E. G., Yiannikouris A., et al., Nutritional impact of mycotoxins in food animal production and strategies for mitigation. J Anim Sci Biotechnol. 2022;13:69. doi: 10.1186/s40104-022-00714-2.
Stoev S. D., Food security and foodborne mycotoxicoses - What should be the adequate risk assessment and regulation? Microorganisms. 2024;12(3):580. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12030580.
Neme K., Mohammed A., Mycotoxin occurrence in grains and the role of postharvest management as a mitigation strategies: A review. Food Control. 2017;78:412-425. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.03.012.
Jankovic L., Draskovic V., Pintaric S., Mirilovic M., coautori., Rodent pest control. Veterinarski glasnik. 2019;73(00):20–20. doi: 10.2298/VETGL190507020J.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations., Introduction to GHP [Good Hygiene Practices and HACCP Toolbox]. FAO. 2023. https://www.fao.org/good-hygiene-practices-haccp-toolbox/ghp/introduction-to-ghp/en.
Gehring K. B., Kirkpatrick R., Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). In: Food safety engineering. Springer. 2020;191–204. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-42660-6_8.
Baikadamova A., Yevlampiyeva Y., Orynbekov D., Idyryshev B., Igenbayev A., Amirkhanov S., Shayakhmetova M., The effectiveness of implementing the HACCP system to ensure the quality of food products in regions with ecological problems. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2024;8:1441479. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2024.1441479.
Jiang Y., Ogunade I. M., Vyas D., Adesogan A. T., Aflatoxin in dairy cows: Toxicity, occurrence in feedstuffs and milk and dietary mitigation strategies. Toxins. 2021;13(4):283. doi: 10.3390/toxins13040283.
Gil L., Ruiz P., Font G., Manyes L., An overview of the applications of hazards analysis and critical control point (HACCP) system to mycotoxins. Revista de Toxicologia. 2016;33(1):50-55.
Fleurat-Lessard F., Integrated management of the risks of stored grain spoilage by seedborne fungi and contamination by storage mould mycotoxins - An update. J Stored Prod Res. 2017;71:22-40. doi: 10.1016/j.jspr.2016.10.002.
Donnelly R., Elliott C., Zhang G., Baker B., Meneely J., Understanding current methods for sampling of aflatoxins in corn and to generate a best practice framework. Toxins (Basel). 2022;14(12):819. doi: 10.3390/toxins14120819.
Awuchi C. G., HACCP, quality, and food safety management in food and agricultural systems. Cogent Food Agric. 2023;9(1):2176280. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2176280.
Baikadamova A., Yevlampiyeva Y., Orynbekov D., Idyryshev B., Igenbayev A., Amirkhanov S., Shayakhmetova M., The effectiveness of implementing the HACCP system to ensure the quality of food products in regions with ecological problems. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2024;8:1441479. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2024.1441479.
Cerf O., Donnat E., the Farm HACCP Working Group., Application of hazard analysis - Critical control point (HACCP) principles to primary production: What is feasible and desirable? Food Control. 2011;22(9):1391-1398. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.04.023.
Chhaya R. S., O’Brien J., Cummins E., Feed to fork risk assessment of mycotoxins under climate change influences - Recent developments. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;126:9-20. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.07.040.
Zarid M., The Green HACCP approach: Advancing food safety and sustainability. Sustainability. 2025;17(17):7834. doi: 10.3390/su17177834.
Pinotti L., Ottoboni M., Giromini C., Dell’Orto V., Cheli F., Mycotoxin contamination in the EU feed supply chain: A focus on cereal byproducts. Toxins (Basel). 2016;8(2):45. doi: 10.3390/toxins8020045.
Jaynes W. F., Zartman R. E., Aflatoxin toxicity reduction in feed by enhanced binding to surface-modified clay additives. Toxins. 2011;3(6):551-565.
Bulgaru V. C., Gras M. A., Popa A., Pistol G. C., Taranu I., Marin D. E., Trends in mycotoxins co-occurrence in the complete feed for farm animals in Southern Romania during 2021-2024 period. Toxins. 2025;17(4):201. doi: 10.3390/toxins17040201.
Baikadamova A., Yevlampiyeva Y., Orynbekov D., Idyryshev B., Igenbayev A., Amirkhanov S., Shayakhmetova M., The effectiveness of implementing the HACCP system to ensure the quality of food products in regions with ecological problems. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2024;8:1441479. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2024.1441479.
Bunny S. M., Umar A., Bhatti H. S., Honey S. F., Aflatoxin risk in the era of climatic change: A comprehensive review. CABI Agric Biosci. 2024;5:105. doi: 10.1186/s43170-024-00105-2.
European Food Safety Authority., Innovative in vitro approaches to toxicological investigations of mycotoxins effects. EFSA J. 2022;20(S2):e200907. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.e200907.
Akinmoladun O. F., Fon F. N., Nji Q., Adeniji O. O., Tangni E. K., Njobeh P. B., Multiple mycotoxin contamination in livestock feed: Implications for animal health, productivity, and food safety. Toxins. 2025;17(8):365. doi: 10.3390/toxins17080365.
